Research Paper about the Reef

Hey guys, I had to write a research paper on something that actually mattered to me for an English class I am in right now, and I wanted to get some feedback from the people who know the reef best! You!

It is just a rough draft at this point so any input would be awesome, but also, it is freaking hard to talk about something so complex in such a small and concise manner.

Anyways, if you have the time and patience to read though it, I would really appreciate it!

-Andrew



The Human Impact upon the Earth’s Oceans and What You Can Do to Help
My love of exotic fish and marine life developed at a pretty young age. My mother used to take me to an aquarium supply store near our house every week to look at all of the wonderful forms of marine life they had for sale. We saw reef rocks, tropical fish, starfish, jellyfish, coral, and clams, all put together in a display that was awe inspiring. It honestly is one of my most fond memories, my mom and I riding our bikes there together; it was what lit a passion inside of me for the marine hobby. At age twenty-one I finally had an opportunity to get my own marine tank. It was a small tank, only twelve gallons in size, which meant an already steep learning curve was nearly vertical. You see, the smaller the amount of water volume, the harder it is to do anything correctly, as less water volume means less room for error. However, I kept on moving forward. I researched hour after hour in order to learn as much as I could, and what started as just a desire to fix my fish tank’s problems ended up educating me greatly on all things marine related. I started to see the ongoing problems the ocean faces, and how we as humans directly impact the world’s reefs. I saw how hundreds of varieties of fish are collected from the reefs for the aquarium hobby via cyanide, a harsh chemical that renders them unconscious for easy collection, and how devastating that was and is to the reefs. I watched as the stores who supply these animals for our enjoyment had become jaded, and really only viewed these animals as commodities, treating them with absolutely no respect. I know many people will read this and will feel like it is irrelevant, they are just fish after all, but I feel that with some education behind how human actions are destroying such precious life, a lot more people would be compelled to do something to help. I feel it would be nearly impossible to address all of the concerns the reefs face, but after all that is not the point. We, as humans, still need to live our lives, to carry on as normal, but maybe make some shifts in our lives that would benefit our world, for our generation, as well as the generations to come. It is human actions that are causing significant damage to the world’s coral reefs in the form of pollution (both organic and inorganic), destructive fishing practices, and global warming.
Did you know that almost every person reading this has likely used a product that has impacted the reef in some form today? Whether it be a vast array of medicines that are derived from coral, to the seafood you may eat, to any other product that was shipped via barge from one country to another, they all impact the reef in some way. The coral reefs around the world play an even larger role in the lives of those who rely on it for maintaining their livelihood. For one, it creates millions of jobs and allows billions of dollars to trade hands, in more than 100 countries around the world. A large portion of these jobs and funds come in the form of tourism, which creates a boom for hotels, restaurants, tourist activities, and travel agencies (Coral Reef Alliance). Further, coral reefs provide a natural barrier to weather features that would otherwise cause devastating damage to coastal communities, cities, and beaches. Aside from just its human impacts the coral reef is home to over 25% of all marine life in the world, providing a safe home for more than a million organisms found nowhere else (Coral Reef Alliance).
First, we must address what coral is in order to explain how it is impacted by human activity. Coral is composed of two basic structures the coral polyp (the soft tissue) and the corallite (the skeletal structure). A coral polyp’s basic structure is “a sack with a stomach and a mouth surrounded by retractable, stinging tentacles. These tentacles are used to catch food” (Palumbi). The corallite is the hard calcium carbonate shell that protects the coral polyp (Palumbi). Reef building corals are colonial in nature and reefs form when many individual coral polyps grow together. The portion of the coral known as the corallite will erode over time; as they are broken down and wash onto shore they create beaches (Palumbi). A healthy reef is defined as, “one where the loss of material to erosion is balanced by the growth of new coral. The reef grows when the growth rate exceeds the erosion rate” (Palumbi). Reef building corals have developed a symbiotic relationship with single celled algae known as zooxanthellae (Palumbi). The zooxanthellae creates food for the coral in a process known as photosynthesis, together the zooxanthellae and coral share the food, and in return the coral provides a protected, nutrient rich, safe haven for the algae to thrive in (Palumbi). Further, it is this brilliant relationship that allows coral to thrive and grow. As Steve Palumbi, researcher and professor at Stanford’s Department of Marine Biology explains, “This gives reef-building coral two sources of food; the food they catch, and food from zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellae supply up to 95% of a polyp’s food requirements and it is this extra food that enables coral to build reefs.” When you look at coral among the reef and see the brilliant colors it is the zooxanthellae algae’s various pigmentations that you are seeing. Unfortunately, zooxanthellae are extremely susceptible to even minor changes in their environment. Palumbi continues explaining the nature of zooxanthellae stating, “When environmental conditions change, like rising water temperatures, zooxanthellae can die, resulting in a loss of pigment in the coral. This is called ‘coral bleaching,’ because the colony turns white. Sometimes, after bleaching has occurred, corals can be recolonized by zooxanthellae and recover, but often they die as a result of this bleaching.” It is vital for these corals to maintain their balanced relationship with zooxanthellae in order to have enough energy to thrive, because coral reefs are found in low-nutrient clear tropical waters. The coral polyps capture food, digest their prey, and release waste as a byproduct, which allows the waste product to be converted by the zooxanthellae into more energy for the coral, which then has a waste product, and the cycle repeats. It is this cycling of nutrients in such an efficient manner that provides the coral with enough food and energy to build the reefs around the world, and any threats to this relationship directly threaten the reef’s success and survival (Palumbi).
Additionally, vital to the growth and development of the coral’s skeletal structure is the careful balance of alkalinity and calcium, which are required by coral and other shelled marine organisms in order to form calcium carbonate shells and skeletons (Holmes-Farley). Alkalinity is defined as “the amount of acid required to lower the pH of the sample to the point where all of the bicarbonate and carbonate could be converted to carbonic acid. This is called the carbonic acid equivalence point or the carbonic acid endpoint” (Holmes-Farley). When coral experiences a change in total alkalinity it causes significant impact to how the coral grows, develops, and ultimately survives (Kleypas, Feely and Fabry 69).
Humans play a significant role in how the world’s oceans are experiencing an alkalinity shift. The process by which we are altering the world’s oceans is known as “acidification.” The primary cause of acidification in the ocean comes from an increase of dissolved carbon dioxide that the oceans absorb from the Earth’s atmosphere (Caldeira and Wickett). This carbon dioxide that is present in the atmosphere is created when humans burn fossil fuels in order to run machinery, drive vehicles, and generate electricity for home life. When carbon dioxide is dissolved by the ocean, the result is a lowering of the ocean’s pH. This is where the term “acidification” comes from, because as the ocean’s pH declines, the ocean becomes more acidic (Caldeira and Wickett). Organisms such as coral, clams, and diatoms (a form of planktonic algae) whose shells and skeletons are primarily composed of calcium carbonate will suffer serious ramifications from acidification (Caldeira and Wickett). At first, acidification dramatically impacts the coral’s ability to grow, because it cannot create a proper balance of alkalinity and calcium to further develop its skeleton. As it slows in growth, it becomes even more desperate to grow further, and ejects some of its zooxanthellae, in order to use its remaining energy in an attempt to stay alive. Ultimately, even a minor shift in total alkalinity causes the death of coral polyps, colonies, and eventually entire reefs (Kleypas, Feely and Fabry 9-12). In order to explain it in the simplest of terms we can look at an example involving chalk, an item made entirely of calcium carbonate, as representation for various organisms’ skeletons and shells. If you were to place the chalk into a glass of plain tap water, which has a relative pH of 7.0, you would see no immediate reaction. However, place a piece of chalk into a glass containing vinegar, whose relative pH is 2.4, and you will see it immediately effervesce. This example models to the extreme what is happening to the Earth’s oceans, because as the pH lowers and acid content rises, the bond between ions that allows calcium carbonate to form is destroyed. Further, as those calcium carbonate dependent organisms see a decrease in the ocean’s pH, their ability to grow is diminished, and eventually, stopped (Caldeira and Wickett). Many scientists have responded with saying coral, like many other organisms before it, simply needs to adapt to the changes in their environment, but so far this has proved nearly impossible for coral structures. As researchers have studied the ability for coral to adapt they have collectively noticed that, “Coral reef organisms have not demonstrated an ability to adapt to decreasing carbonate saturation” (Kleypas, Feely and Fabry 69). Again, it is vital to note that this acidification of the ocean is causing long lasting devastation to the marine environment through damages to the food web, which ultimately dismantles the ocean’s ability to produce, which in turn has global economic effects. Researchers have also reached this same conclusion saying, “Decreased calcification in marine organisms is likely to impact marine food webs and, combined with other climatic changes in temperature, salinity, and nutrients, could substantially alter the biodiversity and productivity of the ocean” (Kleypas, Feely and Fabry 69).
While acidification is a form of human imposed organic pollution on the reefs, humans have also played a major role in creating large problems to the reef via inorganic means. One of the ways humans have inorganically polluted the reef is via the contribution of growth accelerants that contribute to a population explosion of the Crown of Thorns starfish. This is a predatory starfish that eats coral at an extremely rapid rate, so its impact is evident. It is estimated that this predatory starfish can consume so much coral during an adult population outbreak that they can reduce a healthy reef to just 1% of the reef’s original coral cover in less than 6 months (CRC Reef Research Centre). This in turn could take a reef system more than ten years to regrow (CRC Reef Research Centre).The Crown of Thorns starfish has up to twenty-one legs, and its entire body is covered in long venomous spines, which leaves it with very few natural predators (CRC Reef Research Centre). Unfortunately, humans have not helped in aiding these natural predators, which keep the Crown of Thorns starfish population under control. Some of the natural predators of the Crown of Thorns starfish include the giant triton snail, the humphead maori wrasse, starry pufferfish, and titan triggerfish (CRC Reef Research Centre). As the CRC Reef Research Centre points out, “The giant triton snail was highly prized and heavily collected prior to its protection in 1969. Numbers of the triton snails on the reef remain low.” This is directly correlated to how humans have reduced the natural predators of the Crown of Thorns starfish. The humphead maori wrasse has also been overfished in areas where we find these starfish overpopulating, and prior to 2003 there was no protection for this species (CRC Reef Research Centre). However, the largest area in which overfishing has caused an inability for the reef to naturally maintain its balance in regards to this starfish is via overall removal of predatory fish. It is these general predatory fish that are likely to eat a small starfish (less than 6 months of age) before they have developed their poisonous spines and before they have begun eating coral, thus preventing the coral devastation all together (CRC Reef Research Centre).
It is important to note that this is not the only way in which humans are causing an increased population in the Crown of Thorns starfish. Another major contributing factor is the human influence on water quality. The Australian government’s Marine Park Authority division explains, “When a dramatic increase in nutrient levels in the water coincides with a COTS [Crown of Thorns starfish] spawning season (November-January) the larval COTS [Crown of Thorns starfish] are able to develop, grow and survive at much higher than normal rates.” So while this may seem like a naturally occurring event that causes the population explosion to occur, it is important to identify where these nutrients come from. It is the use of artificial soil nutrients, pesticides, and other human pollution that are common on land, that enter the oceans and reefs via waterways during periods of increased rainfall (GBRMPA). Again, we see how human actions have directly contributed to the population outbreaks of coral devastating starfish.
When we look at coral and its delicate make up, it is easy to see how even minor human impact has significant, long lasting effects. In the year 2011 it was projected that 60% of all of the world’s reefs were, and are, under direct threat from human activity (Burke, Reytar and Spalding 3). Though the reef faces many risks, it was found that above all others, overfishing -including destructive fishing practices - was the primary cause of damage to the reef, due to its immediate impact (Burke, Reytar and Spalding 3). But what exactly is overfishing? The “Coral Reef Alliance,” an organization dedicated to informing the world of the reefs’ impending problems, defines overfishing as the point, “when fish or other marine animals are harvested at rates faster than they can reproduce.” The primary forms of destructive fishing are poison fishing and dynamite fishing. Poison fishing is when the “fisherman” dives down to the reef and simply squirts cyanide, a poison that stuns the fish, into the crevices of the reef making the fish easy to catch (Coral Reef Alliance). This process is not only devastating to the fish population, as a large portion is poisoned beyond being usable from this tactic, but its effects are felt along the entire reef. The coral that comes in contact with the cyanide also dies instantaneously, and the surrounding coral often “bleach” (Coral Reef Alliance). However, its effects reach far greater than the simple immediate impact to the reef. As overfishing increases due to increased populations along coastal communities, the fish populations begin to become permanently depleted (Burke, Reytar and Spalding 4). This is primarily due to a combination of habitat destruction and a fewer number of the species left behind to reproduce (Coral Reef Alliance). It is this deadly combination that leaves targeted species struggling to continue thriving, as well as other species that are not directly intended to be impacted in danger, as they are the collateral damage of destructive fishing. Algae, coral, and fish populations are all a careful balance within the reef, and when select species are removed from the food web due to destructive fishing practices, it allows other species to take their place, permanently changing this dynamic (Coral Reef Alliance)
Dynamite fishing, or blast fishing, also drastically impacts the reefs and other marine life, and further contributes to the overall overfishing epidemic. Blast fishing is a method where an explosion is created by some form of a charge (dynamite or other homemade bomb). This explosion releases a shock wave that kills the fish for easy collection (Coral Reef Alliance). Unfortunately, this is not where the devastation ends, as this method kills all life within the reef in a given blast radius (Coral Reef Alliance). However, it is not only the life on the reef that is killed, it is also the structure. The structure is paramount to the success of any coral reef, and when it is reduced to rubble via blast fishing, it can take hundreds of years to become reestablished (Coral Reef Alliance). A large reason why it is so common for blast fishing to be used is because of the cheap, readily available materials required to create dynamite or homemade bombs. This method also produces greater yields for less money, something that can significantly alter the quality of life in more impoverished nations, such as Indonesia where blast fishing is common (Coral Reef Alliance). It is staggering to think about how this method of fishing could be considered legal, but alas there is the catch. Once again, the Coral Reef Alliance notes, “Although illegal, dynamite fishing is practiced in up to 30 countries in Southeast Asia and Oceania and is also common in Eastern Africa.” This is of particular concern because even though laws have been put in place to protect the reefs, they have been ignored and unenforced, and ultimately blast fishing continues to threaten the reefs’ ecosystems globally.
Unfortunately, a sad prognosis looms for the reefs as scientists study the effects of global warming. Global warming, that phrase, we all have heard it, it gets tossed around so frequently, but really, what are the effects of a couple degrees change in the climate? First, let’s address what global warming actually is. Global warming is defined as, “climate change that causes an increase in the average temperature of the lower atmosphere” (Kim, Granger and Puckett). By the year 2100 new research has estimated that there will be a temperature increase of 4.2 degrees Celsius (Rogelj, Chen and Nabel). Joeri Rogelj from the Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, and a lead researcher of the report stating these new found statistics said, “Ocean acidification due to increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide…will put increasing stress onto marine eco-systems. Based on our analysis, thresholds that were defined…as being critical for marine eco-systems will be exceeded from 2030 onwards.” Ultimately, as we see temperatures rising in our oceans the beginning of coral destruction happens. When temperature changes occur, the coral responds exactly the same as if its alkalinity levels had become out of balance. First it undergoes coral bleaching, in which the coral expels some, if not all, of its zooxanthellae, which as we have seen causes ultimate mortality if the environment does not change (Coral Reef Alliance). Further, as temperatures increase sea level rises with it, due to the melting of the Earth’s icecaps. This places the coral reefs under deeper and deeper water at an accelerating rate; this means the sunlight used to fuel photosynthesis cannot penetrate the water deep enough, which in turn slows growth because the zooxanthellae cannot produce enough food via photosynthesis in order to sustain the coral colonies (Coral Reef Alliance).
Though it is a sad prognosis for the reefs in the future, all hope is not lost. We all can make changes that can help the world’s reefs survive, and once again thrive. In a sobering statistic we see that every day the average person burns enough fossil fuels to create twenty-four pounds of carbon dioxide, of which nine pounds are taken on by the ocean (Rogelj, Chen and Nabel). So how can we help protect the reefs? First, we should all do our part to hold our governments responsible for what is going on in our oceans. We should strive to have our governments create effective marine protected areas in order to safeguard marine life and coral reefs from human threats, by placing them in areas less likely to be accessed by damaging agents. Second, we should work together to lessen stress on the reef. A less stressed reef system will be more likely to adapt to climate changes, and more likely to rebound from coral bleaching events. We can do this in a variety of ways, such as reducing our energy consumption, driving our vehicles less, and being mindful of our waste disposal so that we may recycle products that can be reused. Third, we again must demand of our governments to adopt strong policies that work on reducing our nation’s greenhouse gases. Fourth, and perhaps the most easily accessible thing we can do in order to protect the reef is to purchase only sustainably caught seafood. Not only will the individual have a piece of mind knowing that the reefs have not been damaged by his or her purchase, but it will also allow species that are under pressure from overfishing, the opportunity to rebound and fill out their populations once again. I hope now, that when you go out and look at the beauty that is found within our oceans, you take into consideration how something you, or someone you know, may have impacted that wonderful world and that with that consideration, and some knowledge, you can set out to protect it. It truly is a bitter pill to swallow, but it is us, humans, that impact and damage the world’s coral reefs, but together, we can contribute our portion to protecting them.












Works Cited
Burke, Lauretta, et al. Reefs at Risk Revisited. Washington DC: World Resource Institute, 2011. Print.
Caldeira, Ken and Michael E. Wickett. "Oceanography: Anthropogenic Carbon and Ocean pH." 25 September 2003. Nature: International Weekly Journal of Science (Issue 425). Web. 15 November 2012 <www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6956/full/425365a.html>.
Coral Reef Alliance. 2012. Web. 6 November 2012 <http://www.coral.org/resources/about_coral_reefs/why_care>.
Coral Reef Alliance. 2008. Web. 12 November 2012 <http://www.coral.org/node/130>.
CRC Reef Organization. Reef Research Centre. May 2006. Web. 16 November 2012 <http://www.reef.crc.org.au/discover/plantsanimals/cots/cotstheory.html>.
GBRMPA. Austrailian Government: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. January 2011.Web. 16 November 2012 <http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/about-the-reef/animals/crown-of-thorns-starfish>.
Holmes-Farley, Randy. Advcanced Aquarist. February 2002. Web. 11 November 2012 <http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2002/2/chemistry>.
Kim, YeSeul, et al. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 2010. Web. 16 November 2012 <http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2010/finalwebsite/background/globalwarming/definition.html>.
Kleypas, Joan A., et al. "Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs." June 2006. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Web. 12 November 2012 <http://www.ucar.edu/communications/Final_acidification.pdf>.
Palumbi, Steve. Microdocs: What is Coral? 11 April 2012. Web. 11 November 2012 <http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/whatisacoral.html>.
Rogelj, Joeri, et al. "Analysis of the Copenhagen Accord pledges and its global climatic impacts—a snapshot of dissonant ambitions." 29 September 2010.Web. IOP Science. 16 November 2012 <http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/5/3/034013/fulltext/>.





If you made it this far, thanks again for your time!

 

i made it and the read was good, but the point is a little more simple to me and a little sad but, i believe until one has seen the beauty of the reef they don't understand what will be missed if it were to end, we have seen and know the beauty of the life in the reef, and it will be our part of keeping it alive, the hobbist may be the end answer.

 

Awesome! Thanks so much for reading through it and giving me your opinion!

 

very sad... but pretty interesting paper.

Looks good, hope you do well. Do you have to cite in MLA? If so I think you have to do the author name or the web address (if article is online) followed by the page number.
Son of Citation Machine

 

Thanks Dingo! I do have to cite MLA, I did it according to the handbook I had on hand. I'll check out that resource you linked me though, just to verify I am doing it correctly. Thanks again for the feedback.